Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Technological Age: The Effects of Perceived Age in Technology Training

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Business and Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to investigate if chronological age sparks negative expectancies thus initiating a self-fulfilling prophecy in technology training interactions.

Design/Methodology/Approach

Data were obtained from undergraduate students (age ≤ 30) paired in 85 trainer–trainee dyads and examined through the actor-partner interdependence model. Trainer and trainee age (younger or older) were manipulated in this laboratory experiment by presenting pre-selected photographs coupled with voice enhancing software.

Findings

As compared to younger trainees, ostensibly older trainees evoked negative expectancies when training for a technological task, which ultimately manifested in poorer training interactions and trainer evaluations of trainee performance.

Implications

Identifying a connection between chronological age and negative expectancies in technology training advances our theoretical understanding of sources contributing to older trainees’ poorer performance in workforce training programs. This study provides evidence of a negative relationship between trainees’ chronological age and trainers’ expectations for trainee success and subsequent training evaluations. Such knowledge offers initial support for a “train-the-trainer” intervention through educating trainers on the potential dangers of age-based stereotypes, which could help to reduce age-based performance discrepancies.

Originality/Value

This is the first study to manipulate age during training thus isolating the influence of age-based stereotypes on training experiences. Given that potential age-related performance decrements in capability and motivation can be eliminated as explanations, this evidence of poorer interactions and outcomes for older workers is critical.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. One trainee and four trainers reported ages of 31 or older. This resulted in five dyads being removed. The manipulation check, which will be discussed in more detail, resulted in the deletion of nine dyads. Therefore, a total of 14 dyads were removed.

  2. The data violated the assumption of normality and we therefore report Welch’s F; however, we note that the parametric analysis revealed the same conclusion.

References

  • Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, 29, U.S.C. § 621.

  • Aguinis, H., & Kraiger, K. (2009). Benefits of training and development for individuals and teams, organizations, and society. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 451–474. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, T., Finkelstein, L., Kanfer, R., Müller, A., Weigl, M., van Vuuren, T., van der Heijden, B., et al. (2012). Understanding and building strength through differences (White paper). University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy: European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology (EAWOP) Small Group Meeting (SGM) on Age Cohorts in the Workplace. Retrieved, from http://www.eawop.org/ckeditor_assets/attachments/134/age_small_group_meeting_white_paper_14_march_2012.pdf?1336095725

  • Arias, E. (2012). United States Life Tables, 2008. National Vital Statistics Report, 61, pp. 1–63. Retrieved, from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_03.pdf

  • Arning, K., & Ziefle, M. (2007). Understanding age differences in PDA acceptance and performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 2904–2927. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.06.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2010). Social psychology (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barr, C. L., & Fleck, R. E. (1995). Self-other perception of the intensity of facial expressions of emotion: Do we know what we show? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 608–618.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biesanz, J. C., Neuberg, S. L., Smith, D. M., Asher, T., & Judice, T. N. (2001). When accuracy-motivated perceiver fail: Limited attentional resources and the reemerging self-fulfilling prophecy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 621–629. doi:10.1177/0146167201275010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, T., Thompson, C. T., Galinsky, E., & Prottas, D. (2002). The 2002 national study of the changing workforce: Executive summary. New York: Families and Work Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braithwaite, V. A. (1986). Old age stereotypes: Reconciling contradictions. Journal of Gerontology, 41, 353–360.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brophy, J. E. (1983). Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 5, 631–661. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.75.5.631.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, R. (1975). Why survive? Being old in America. New York: Harper and Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carstensten, L. L. (1998). A life-span approach to social motivation. In J. Heckhausen & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulation across the life span (pp. 341–364). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Charness, N., Kelley, C. L., Bosman, E. A., & Mottram, M. (2001). Word-processing training and retraining: Effects of adult age, experience, and interface. Psychology and Aging, 16, 120–127. doi:10.1037//0882-7974.16.1.110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colquitt, J. A., LePine, J. A., & Noe, R. N. (2000). Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: A meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 678–707. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.85.5.678.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, W. L., & Kenny, D. A. (2005). The actor-partner interdependence model: A model of bi directional effects in developmental studies. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 101–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, J. T. (1994). Prophecies of power: Motivational implications of social power for behavioral confirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 264–277. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cuddy, A. J., & Fiske, S. T. (2002). Doddering but dear: Process, content, and function in stereotyping of older persons. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older people (pp. 3–26). Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuddy, A. J., Norton, M. I., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). This old stereotype: The pervasiveness and persistence of the elderly stereotype. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 267–286. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00405.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Czaja, S. J., Charness, N., Fisk, A. D., Hertzog, C., Nair, S. N., Rogers, W. A., & Sharit, J. (2006). Factors predicting the use of technology: Findings from the center for research and education on aging and technology enhancement (CREATE). Psychology and Aging, 21, 333–352. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.2.333.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J. M., & Fazio, R. H. (1980). Expectancy confirmation processes arising in the social interaction sequence. American Psychologist, 35, 867–881. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.35.10.867.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013–1027. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein, L. M., Burke, M. J., & Raju, M. S. (1995). Age discrimination in simulated employment contexts: An integrative analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 652–663. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.80.6.652.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein, L. M., Ryan, K. M., & King, E. B. (2012). What do the young (old) people think of me? Content and accuracy of age-related meta-stereotypes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,. doi:10.1080/1359432X.2012.673279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 878–902. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression-formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 1–74. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60317-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of instructional design. New York: Holt, Rimehart and Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gist, M., Rosen, B., & Schwoerer, C. (1988). The influence of training method and trainee age on the acquisition of computer skills. Personnel Psychology, 41, 255–265. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1988.tb02384.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, L. (1975). The myth and reality of aging in America. Washington: National Council on the Aging.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. J., & Perkins, R. (1995). Effects of distraction on interpersonal expectancy effects: A social interaction test of the cognitive busyness hypothesis. Social Cognition, 13, 163–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hickman, J. M., Rogers, W. A., & Fisk, A. D. (2007). Training older adults to use new technology. Journals of Gerontology, 62B, 77–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holladay, C. L., & Quiñones, M. A. (2008). The influence of training focus and trainer characteristics on diversity training effectiveness. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 7, 343–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jelen, B. (2009). Excel VBA and macros with MrExcel live lessons [Computer software]. USA: Que Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, L., & Hoyer, W. J. (2000). Instance-based automaticity and aging: Acquisition, reacquisition, and long term retention. Psychology and Aging, 15, 551–565. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.15.3.551.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jussim, L. (1986). Self-fulfilling prophecies: A theoretical and integrative review. Psychological Review, 93, 429–445. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.93.4.429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 131–155.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29, 440–458. doi:10.2307/20159053.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kashy, D. A., & Kenny, D. A. (2000). The analysis of data from dyads and groups. In H. T. Reis & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social psychology (pp. 451–477). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, D. A. (1996). Models of nonindependence in dyadic research. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 13, 279–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Cook, W. L. (2006). Dyadic data analysis. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kierein, N. M., & Gold, M. A. (2000). Pygmalion in work organizations: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 913–928. doi:10.1002/1099-1379(200012)21:8<913.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., & Feldman, D. C. (1994). Working in retirement: The antecedents of bridge employment and its consequences for quality of life in retirement. Academy of Management, 43, 1195–1210. doi:10.2307/1556345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kubeck, J. E., Delp, N. D., Haslett, T. K., & McDaniel, M. A. (1996). Does job-related training performance decline with age? Psychology and Aging, 11, 92–107. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.11.1.92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33, 159–174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landy, F. J., Shankster-Cawley, L. S., & Moran, S. K. (1995). Advancing personnel selection and placement methods. In A. Howard (Ed.), The changing nature of work (pp. 67–86). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeBrenton, J. M., & Senter, J. L. (2008). Answers to 20 questions about interrater reliability and interrater agreement. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 815–852. doi:10.1177/1094428106296642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liberman, B. E., Block, C. J., & Koch, S. M. (2011). Diversity trainer preconceptions: The effects of trainer race and gender on perceptions of diversity trainer effectiveness. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 33, 279–293. doi:10.1080/01973533.2011.589327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madden, M., & Jones, S. (2008, September 24). Networked workers. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media//Files/Reports/2008/PIP_Networked_WorkersFINAL.pdf.pdf

  • Madon, S., Jussim, L., & Eccles, J. (1997). In search of the powerful self-fulfilling prophecy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 791–809. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.4.791.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martell, R. F., Lane, D. M., & Emrich, C. (1996). Male-female differences: A computer simulation. American Psychologist, 51, 157–158. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maurer, T. J., Weiss, E. M., & Barbeite, F. (2003). A model of involvement in work-related learning and development activity: The effects of individual, situational, motivational, and age variables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 707–724. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R. K. (1948). The self-fulfilling prophecy. The Antioch Review, 8, 193–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. T., & Turnbull, W. (1986). Expectancies and interpersonal processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 27, 233–256. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.37.020186.001313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minear, M., & Park, D. C. (2004). A lifespan database of adult facial stimuli. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 630–633. doi:10.3758/BF03206543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, M. G., & Venkatesh, V. (2000). Age differences in technological adoption decisions: Implications for a changing workforce. Personnel Psychology, 53, 375–403. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2000.tb00206.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MorphVOX Pro [Computer software]. Palm Coast, FL: Screaming Bee Inc.

  • Neuberg, S. L. (1989). The goal of forming accurate impressions during social interactions: Attenuating the impact of negative expectancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 374–386. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.3.374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neuberg, S. L. (1994). Expectancy-confirmation processes in stereotype-tinged social encounters: The moderating role of social goals. In M. P. Zanna & J. M. Olson (Eds.), The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario symposium on personality and social psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 103–130). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2008). The relationship of age to ten dimensions of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 392–423. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.392.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noe, R. A. (2010). Employee training and development (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, J. M., Roese, N. J., & Zanna M. P. (1996). Expectancies. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 211–238). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, K. E., O’Brien, M. A., Rogers, W. A., & Charness, N. (2011). Diffusion of technology: Frequency of use for younger and older adults. Ageing International, 36, 123–145. doi:10.1007/s12126-010-9077-9.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 173–196. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Penn State (2008a). Excel basics. Retrieved from http://www.ecs.psu.edu/training/Quizzes/Excel/ExcelBasics1.htm

  • Penn State (2008b). Excel macros. Retrieved from http://www.ecs.psu.edu/training/Quizzes/Excel/ExcelMacros.htm

  • Pitt-Catsouphes, M., Matz-Costa, C., & Brown, M. (2010). The prism of age: Managing age diversity at the 21st century workplace. In S. Tyson & E. Parry (Eds.), Managing an age diverse workforce (pp. 80–94). London: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posthuma, R. A., & Campion, M. A. (2009). Age stereotypes in the workplace: Common stereotypes, moderators, and future research directions. Journal of Management, 35, 158–188. doi:10.1177/0149206308318617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R. (1994). Interpersonal expectancy effects: A 30 year perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3, 176–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectation and pupils’ intellectual development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salthouse, T. A. (1992). Working memory mediation of adult age differences in integrative reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 20, 413–423. doi:10.3758/BF03210925.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salthouse, T. A., & Babcock, R. L. (1991). Decomposing adult age differences in working memory. Developmental Psychology, 27, 763–776. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.27.5.763.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, J. R., King, E. B., & Quiñones, M. A. (2007). Expectations of obese trainees: How stigmatized trainee characteristics influence training outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 239–249. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shore, L. M., & Goldberg, C. B. (2004). Age discrimination in the work place. In R. L. Dipboye & A. Colella (Eds.), The psychological and organizational bases of discrimination at work. Frontier Series: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simonton, D. K. (1990). Creativity and wisdom in aging. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (pp. 320–329). New York: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, M., & Haugen, J. A. (1995). Why does behavioral confirmation occur? A functional perspective on the role of the target. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 963–974. doi:10.1177/0146167295219010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, M., & Stukas, A. A. (1999). Interpersonal processes: The interplay of cognitive, motivational, and behavioral activities in social interaction. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 273–303. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, M., Tanke, E. D., & Berscheid, E. (1977). Social perception and interpersonal behavior: On the self-fulfilling nature of social stereotypes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 656–666.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stahl, A. (2010, September 2010). What’s a macro and why should you care [Blog]. Retrieved, from http://blogs.office.com/b/crabby_office_lady/archive/2010/09/28/macros.aspx

  • Tannenbaum, S. I., & Yukl, G. (1992). Training and development in work organizations. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 399–441. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.002151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Touron, D. R., & Hertzog, C. (2004). Distinguishing age differences in knowledge, strategy use, and confidence during strategic skill acquisition. Psychology and Aging, 19, 452–466. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.452.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Towler, A. J., & Dipboye, R. L. (2001). Effects of trainer expressiveness, organization, and trainee goal orientation on training outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 664–673. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.86.4.664.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2008). Overview of the 2008-18 projections. Retrieved, from http://www.bls.gov/oco/oco2003.htm#Labor%20Force

  • Vrugt, A., & Schabracq, M. (1996). Stereotypes with respect to elderly employees: The contribution of attribute information and representativeness. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 6, 287–292. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1298(199610)6:4<287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westerman, S. J., & Davies, D. R. (2000). Acquisition and application of new technology skills: The influence of age. Occupational Medicine, 50, 478–482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Word, C. H., Zanna, M. P., & Cooper, J. (1974). The nonverbal mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in inter-racial interaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 109–120. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(74)90059-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, MSN 3F5, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA

    Tracy C. McCausland, Eden B. King, Lindsey Bartholomew, Rachel Feyre & Afra Ahmad

  2. Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, Psych.-Computer Science Building PM 571, Dekalb, IL, 60115, USA

    Lisa M. Finkelstein

Authors
  1. Tracy C. McCausland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eden B. King
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lindsey Bartholomew
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rachel Feyre
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Afra Ahmad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Lisa M. Finkelstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tracy C. McCausland.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

McCausland, T.C., King, E.B., Bartholomew, L. et al. The Technological Age: The Effects of Perceived Age in Technology Training. J Bus Psychol 30, 693–708 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-014-9390-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-014-9390-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation